The Vietnam War 1965 - 1973 plus Operation Frequent Wind

1965

August 2, 1964 -- The US Navy Destroyer USS Maddox was attacked by three North Vietnamese patrol boats 28 miles away from the North Vietnamese coast and inside international waters, while heading deeper inside those waters. The Maddox evaded a torpedo attack and chased the ships away. The Maddox, suffering only very minor damage by a single machine gun bullets, retired to South Vietnamese waters where she was joined by the destroyer USS Turner Joy.

North Vietnamese patrol boats attacking the USS Maddox
(US Navy)

August 7, 1965 -- Congress passed a joint resolution (H.J. RES 1145), known as the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, that facilitated increased U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War. The Resolution gave President Johnson approval "to take all necessary steps, including the use of armed force, to assist any member or protocol state of the Southeast Asia Collective Defense Treaty requesting assistance in defense of its freedom." Both Johnson and President Richard Nixon used the Resolution as a justification for escalated involvement in Indochina.

Joint Resolution 1145
To promote the maintenance of international peace and security in southeast Asia.
Whereas naval units of the Communist regime in Vietnam, in violation of the principles of the Charter of the United Nations and of international law, have deliberately and repeatedly attacked United States naval vessels lawfully present in international waters, and have thereby created a serious threat to international peace; and

Whereas theses attacks are part of a deliberate and systematic campaign of aggression that the Communist regime in North Vietnam has been waging against its neighbors and the nations joined with them in the collective defense of their freedom; and

Whereas the United States is assisting the peoples of southeast Asia to protect their freedom and has no territorial, military or political ambitions in that area, but desires only that these peoples should be left in peace to work out their own destinies in their own way: Now, therefore, be it

Resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled. That the Congress approves and supports the determination of the President, as Commander in Chief, to take all necessary measures to repel any armed attack against the forces of the United States and to prevent further aggression.

Sec. 2. The United States regards as vital to its national interest and to world peace the maintenance of international peace and security in southeast Asia. Consonant with the Constitution of the United States and the Charter of the United Nations and in accordance with its obligations under the Southeast Asia Collective Defense Treaty, the United States is, therefore, prepared, as the President determines, to take all necessary steps, including the use of armed force, to assist any member or protocol state of the Southeast Asia Collective Defense Treaty requesting assistance in defense of its freedom.

Sec. 3. This resolution shall expire when the President shall determine that the peace and security of the area is reasonably assured by international conditions created by action of the United Nations or otherwise, except that it may be terminated earlier by concurrent resolution of the Congress.

1965

January 27, 1965 - National Security Advisor McGeorge Bundy and Defense Secretary Robert McNamara, send a memo to the President Johnson stating that America's military involvement in Vietnam is not succeeding, and that the U.S. must either soon escalate or withdraw.

January 1965 - Operation Game Warden - U.S. Navy begins river patrols on South Vietnam's thousands of miles of inland waterways.

February 6, 1965 - Viet Cong guerrillas attack the U.S. military compound at Pleiku in the central highlands, killing eight Americans, wounding 126 and destroying ten aircraft.

February 7-8 - Operation Flaming Dart, the bombing of a North Vietnamese army camp near Dong Hoi by U.S. Navy jets from the carrier Ranger.

February 22, 1965 - General William C. Westmoreland requests two battalions of U.S. Marines to protect the American air base at Da Nang from the Viet Cong massed in the vicinity.

March 2, 1965 - Operation Rolling Thunder begins as over 100 American fighter-bombers attack targets in North Vietnam. Scheduled to last eight weeks, Rolling Thunder will instead go on for three years.

March 8, 1965 - The first U.S. combat troops arrive in Vietnam - 3500 Marines land at China Beach to defend the American air base at Da Nang.

March 29, 1965 - Viet Cong bomb the U.S. embassy in Saigon.

April 1, 1965 - At the White House, President Johnson authorizes two more Marine battalions and up to 20,000 logistical personnel for Vietnam. The President also authorizes American combat troops to conduct patrols to root out Viet Cong in the countryside. This decision to allow offensive combat operations is kept secret from the American public for two months.

April 15, 1965 - A thousand tons of bombs are dropped on Viet Cong positions by USAF and SVNAF

April 24, 1965 - Combat pay for troops authorized.

May 3, 1965 - The first U.S. Army combat troops arrive in South Vietnam consisting of 3500 men of the 173rd Airborne Infantry Brigade.

May 11, 1965 - Viet Cong over-run South Vietnamese troops in Phuoc Long Province north of Saigon.

May 13, 1965 - The first bombing pause is announced by the U.S. in the hope that Hanoi will now negotiate. The North Vietnamese ignore the peace overtures and use the pause to repair air defenses and send more troops and supplies into the South by the Ho Chi Minh trail.

May 13, 1965 - Viet Cong attack the U.S. special forces camp in Phuoc Long. During the fighting, 2LT Charles Williams, earns the Medal of Honor.

May 19, 1965 - U.S. bombing of North Vietnam resumes.

June 18, 1965 - GEN Nguyen Cao Ky takes power in South Vietnam as the new prime minister.

July 1, 1965 - Viet Cong conduct a mortar attack against the Da Nang air base and destroy three aircraft.

July 8, 1965 - Henry Cabot Lodge is reappointed as U.S. ambassador to South Vietnam.

July 28, 1965 - President Johnson announces he will send 44 combat battalions to Vietnam increasing the U.S. military presence to 125,000 men. Monthly draft requirements are increased to 35,000 men.

August 3, 1965 - The destruction of suspected Viet Cong villages near Da Nang by a U.S. Marine rifle company is shown on CBS News which generates controversy in America by the way the news is presented.

August 5, 1965 - Viet Cong attacks destroy two million gallons of fuel in storage tanks at Da Nang.

August 18-24, 1965 - Operation Starlite begins the first major U.S. ground offensive operations in Vietnam as U.S. Marines attack 1500 Viet Cong planning to assault the American airfield at Chu Lai.

August 31, 1965 - President Johnson signs a law criminalizing the burning of draft cards.

October 16, 1965 - Anti-war rallies occur in 40 American cities.

October 19, 1965 - NVA regulars attack the U.S. Special Forces camp at Plei Me.

October 30, 1965 - 25,000 demonstrators march in Washington in support of U.S. involvement in Vietnam. The marchers are led by five Medal of Honor recipients.

November 14-16 - The Battle of Ia Drang Valley marks the first battle between U.S. troops and North Vietnamese Army regulars (NVA) inside South Vietnam. Soldiers of the 1st Cavalry Division (Airmobile) respond to the NVA threat by performing an air assault directly into the battle zone by helicopter. Upon landing the soldiers are quickly engaged in fierce fire fights by the NVA. The two-day battle ends with NVA retreating. 79 Americans are killed and 121 wounded. B-52s are used for the first time in support of ground troops in South Vietnam.

LTC Moore and dead Viet Cong after battle in Ia Drang Valley
(US Army Center of Military History)

November 17, 1965 - Four hundred soldiers of the U.S. 7th Cavalry sent on foot to occupy nearby Landing Zone 'Albany' are ambushed by NVA troops that had been held in reserve during the battle in the Ia Drang valley.

November 27, 1965 - 35,000 anti-war protesters circle the White House then march on to the Washington Monument for a rally.

November 30, 1965 - After a visit to South Vietnam Secretary of Defense Robert S. McNamara privately warns the President that American casualty rates of up to 1000 dead per month could be expected.

December 4, 1965 - In Saigon, Viet Cong bomb a hotel used by U.S. military personnel, killing eight and wounding 137.

December 7, 1965 - Secretary McNamara tells President Johnson that the North Vietnamese "believe that the war will be a long one, that time is their ally, and that their staying power is superior to ours."

December 9, 1965 - The New York Times states the U.S. is unable to stop the flow of North Vietnamese soldiers and supplies into the South despite extensive bombing.

December 25, 1965 - The second pause in the bombing of North Vietnam starts. The North Vietnamese denounce the bombing halt as a "trick" and continue Viet Cong activities in the South.

At year's end U.S. troop levelsin Vietnam reached 184,300. An estimated 90,000 South Vietnamese soldiers deserted in, while an approximately 35,000 soldiers from North Vietnam infiltrate the South via the Ho Chi Minh trail. Half of the countryside in South Vietnam is now under some degree of Viet Cong control.

1966

January 31, 1966 - Citing Hanoi's failure to respond to his peace overtures during the 37 day bombing pause, President Johnson announces the resuming of bombing of North Vietnam.

January 31, 1966 - Senator Robert F. Kennedy criticizes President Johnson's decision to resume the bombing.

February 1966 - The Senate Foreign Relations Committee, headed by Sen. J. William Fulbright, holds televised hearings examining America's policy in Vietnam. Appearing before the committee, Secretary McNamara states that U.S. objectives in Vietnam are "not to destroy or overthrow the Communist government of North Vietnam but are limited to the destruction of the aggression directed by the North Vietnamese against the political institutions of South Vietnam."

March 1, 1966 - An vote to repeal the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution fails in the U.S. Senate by a vote of 92 to 5.

March 10, 1966 - South Vietnamese Buddhists Monks begin a violent campaign to oust Prime Minister Noyan Kao Ky following his dismissal of a top Buddhist general. Unrest in several cities in South Vietnam including Saigon, Da Nang and Hue spills into the streets as political squabbling interferes with U.S. military operations.

April 12, 1966 - B-52s are used for the first time against North Vietnam. Target selections are closely supervised by the White House. There are six main target categories: power facilities, war support facilities, transportation lines, military complexes, fuel storage, and air defense installations.

April 13, 1966 - Viet Cong attack Tan Son Nhut air base near Saigon causing 140 casualties while destroying 12 U.S. helicopters and nine aircraft.

June 25, 1966 - Political unrest in South Vietnam abates following the crackdown on Buddhist rebels by Prime Minister Ky.

June 29, 1966 - Citing increased infiltration of communist guerrillas from North, the U.S. bombs oil depots around Hanoi and Haiphong, ending a self-imposed bombing moratorium.

The U.S. is very carful about targeting the city of Hanoi itself due to concerns for the reactions of North Vietnam's allies of China and the Soviet Union.

July 6, 1966 - Radio Hanoi reports that captured American pilots have been paraded though the streets of Hanoi.

July 11, 1966 - The U.S. intensifies bombing raids against the Ho Chi Minh trail in Laos.

July 15, 1966 - Operation Hastings is launched by U.S. Marines and South Vietnamese troops in Quang Tri Province. This is the largest combined military operation to date in the war.

August 9, 1966 - U.S. jets attack two South Vietnamese villages by mistake killing over 100.

September 1, 1966 - During a visit to Cambodia, French President Charles de Gaulle calls for the U.S. to withdrawal from Vietnam.

September 12, 1966 - The heaviest air raid of the war so far occurs as 500 U.S. jets attack NVA supply lines and coastal targets.

September 14-November 24 - Operation Attleboro begins involving 20,000 U.S. and South Vietnamese soldiers in a search-and-destroy mission 50 miles north of Saigon near the Cambodian border. During the fighting, enormous weapons caches are found in a hidden base camp in the jungle. 155 Americans are killed and 494 wounded.

September 23, 1966 - Jungles near the Demilitarized Zone are being defoliated by Agent Orange.

October 3, 1966 - The Soviet Union announces it will provide military and economic aid to North Vietnam.

October 25, 1966 - President Johnson conducts a conference in Manila with America's Vietnam Allies. The Allies pledge to withdraw from Vietnam within six months if North Vietnam will withdraw completely from the South.

October 26, 1966 - President Johnson visits U.S. troops at Cam Rahn Bay.

December 9 - North Vietnam rejects a proposal by President Johnson for discussions concerning treatment of POWs and a possible exchange.

At year's end, U.S. troop levels reach 389,000 with 5008 combat deaths and 30,093 wounded.

1967

January 2, 1967 - Operation Bolo starts as 28 U.S. Air Force F-4 Phantom jets lure North Vietnamese MiG-21 interceptors into a dogfight over Hanoi and shoot down seven of them.

January 8-26 - Operation Cedar Falls occurs. It is the largest combined offensive to date and involves 16,000 American and 14,000 South Vietnamese soldiers clearing out Viet Cong from the 'Iron Triangle' area 25 miles northwest of Saigon. Americans uncover an extensive network of tunnels.

February 8-12 - Tet truce period, the Vietnamese Lunar New Year.

February 13, 1967 - Failure of diplomatic peace efforts results in President Johnson announcing the U.S. will resume full-scale bombing of North Vietnam.

February 22-May 14 - Operation Junction City involving 22 U.S. and four South Vietnamese battalions attempt to destroy the NVA's central headquarters in South Vietnam. The operation includes the only combat parachute drop by U.S. troops during the war.

2nd Battalion 7th Marines conducting a patrol
(National Archives)

March 19-21 - President Johnson goes to Guam to meet with South Vietnam's Prime Minister Ky and pressures him to hold elections.

April 14, 1967 - Richard M. Nixon visits Saigon and states that anti-war protesters back in the states are "prolonging the war."

April 15, 1967 - Rev. Martin Luther King states the war is undermining President Johnson's Great Society social programs.

April 20, 1967 - U.S. bombs Haiphong harbor in North Vietnam for the first time.

April 24-May 11 - Battles rage at Khe Sanh between U.S. 3rd Marines and the NVA. American losses are 155 killed and 425 wounded. The isolated fire support base and air strip is located in mountainous terrain less than 10 miles from the borders of North Vietnam and Laos.

April 24, 1967 - General Westmoreland condemns anti-war demonstration stating they give the North Vietnamese "hope that they can win politically what he cannot accomplish militarily." Westmoreland warns the President the war could go on indefinitely.

May 1, 1967 - Ellsworth Bunker replaces Henry Cabot Lodge as ambassador to South Vietnam.

May 13, 1967 - In New York City, 70,000 march in support of the war with strong support from hard hat construction workers.

May 22, 1967 - President Johnson publicly tells the North Vietnamese to accept a peace compromise.

June 1967 - The Mobile Riverine Force becomes operational utilizing navy 'Swift' boats and army troop support to halt Viet Cong use inland waterways of the Mekong Delta.

July 1967 - General Westmoreland requests an additional 200,000 soldiers to reinforce the 475,000 soldiers already scheduled to be sent to Vietnam. President Johnson approves the addition of 45,000.

July 7, 1967 - The North Vietnamese Politburo decides to launch a widespread offensive against the South. The offensive would be in three phases: phase one involves attacks against remote border areas to lure American troops away from South Vietnam's cities; phase two (Tet Offensive) will attack the cities using Viet Cong forces aided by the NVA to ignit a "general uprising" to overthrow the government of South Vietnam; phase three consists of invasding South Vietnam by NVA from North Vietnam.

July 29, 1967 - A fire aboard the USS Forestall kills 134 sailors in the Gulf of Tonkin. Exact origin of the fire remains unknown.

August 9, 1967 - The Senate Armed Services Committee begins closed-door hearings concerning the influence of civilian advisors on military planning. During the hearings, Secretary McNamara testifies that the bombing campaign is failing to effect North Vietnam's war making ability in the south; and that nothing short of "the virtual annihilation of North Vietnam and its people" would ever succeed.

August 18, 1967 - California Governor Ronald Reagan says the U.S. should get out of Vietnam because "too many qualified targets have been put off limits to bombing" making victory impossible.

September 1, 1967 - North Vietnamese Prime Minister Pham Van Dong states they will "continue to fight."

September 3, 1967 - National elections are held in South Vietnam. Nguyen Van Thieu is elected president with Nguyen Cao Ky as his vice-president.

October 1967 - A public opinion poll shows 46 percent of Americans now believe U.S. military involvement in Vietnam to be a "mistake." However, most Americans also believe that the U.S. should "win or get out" of Vietnam. Life magazine decides not to support Johnson's war policies.

October 21-23 - 'March on the Pentagon' draws 55,000 to protest.

October 31, 1967 - President Johnson reaffirms his commitment to maintain U.S. involvement in South Vietnam.

November 11, 1967 - Hanoi rejects another peace overture form the US.

November 17, 1967 - Following a briefing in the White House by General Westmoreland and Ambassador Bunker, President Johnson tells the American people, "We are inflicting greater losses than we're taking...We are making progress."

November 29, 1967 - Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara announces his resignation during a press conference, stating,

November 30, 1967 - Senator Eugene McCarthy (D) announces he will be a candidate for President stating.

December 23, 1967 - At Cam Ranh Bay, President Johnson states, "The enemy is not beaten, but he knows that he has met his master in the field." This is the President's final trip to Vietnam.

U.S. troop levels at year's end reach 463,000. 16,000 combat deaths to date. A million American service personnel have rotated through Vietnam. Overall Viet Cong/NVA troop strength throughout the south is estimated to be 300,000 men.

1968

January 5, 1968 - Operation Niagara I starts to map NVA positions around Khe Sanh.

January 21, 1968 - NVA troops under the command of GEN Giap attack the American fire support base and air strip at Khe Sanh. A 77 day siege begins with 5000 U.S. Marines at the isolated outpost are encircled. The media compares Khe Sanh with the 1954 Battle of Dien Bien Phu the French were surrounded then defeated.

Operation Niagara II then begins a massive aerial supply effort to the besieged Marines along with heavy B-52 bombardment of NVA troop positions. At the peak of the battle, NVA soldiers are bombed around-the-clock every 90 minutes by flights of three B-52s which dropping over 110,000 tons of bombs.

January 31, 1968 - The turning point of the war strategically occurs as 84,000 Viet Cong guerrillas aided by NVA troops launch the Tet Offensive attacking a hundred cities and hamlets throughout South Vietnam.

The surprise offensive is observed by American Television news crews in Vietnam, they film the U.S. embassy in Saigon being attacked by the Viet Cong along with bloody scenes from battle areas showing American soldiers under fire, being killed and wounded. For the first time Americans at home thus have a front row seat in their living rooms to the Viet Cong/NVA assaults against the American military. Because of the news broadcasts it appears the that President Johnson has lied to the American people about the conflict in South Vietnam

January 31-March 7 - The Battle for Saigon. Attacks are repelled against Ton Son Nhut Air Base.

January 31-March 2 - In the Battle for Hue during Tet, 12,000 NVA and Viet Cong troops storm the lightly defended historical city. The Viet Cong systematically execute over 3000 "enemies of the people." South Vietnamese troops and three U.S. Marine battalions counter-attack and engage in the heaviest fighting of Tet. The marines retake the old imperial city, house by house, street by street, aided by American air and artillery strikes. On February 24, U.S. Marines occupy the Imperial Palace in the heart of the citadel. American losses are 142 Marines killed and 857 wounded, 74 U.S. Army killed and 507 wounded. South Vietnamese suffer 384 killed and 1830 wounded. NVA killed are put at over 5000.

February 1, 1968 - In Saigon during Tet, a suspected Viet Cong guerrilla is executed by South Vietnam's police chief Gen. Nguyen Ngoc Loan by shooting him in the head, in full view of an NBC news cameraman and an Associated Press still photographer. The AP photo taken by Eddie Adams appears on the front page of most American newspapers the next morning. Americans also observe the filmed execution on NBC TV. (photo below)

(AP Photo)

During Tet, an American officer who states, 'We had to destroy it, in order to save it,' referring to a small town near Saigon leveled by American bombs. His statement is later used as a metaphor for the American experience in Vietnam.

February 2, 1968 - President Johnson labels the Tet Offensive "a complete failure."

For the North Vietnamese, the Tet Offensive is a military failure in Vietnam. As a result, most of the fighting will be taken over by NVA regulars fighting a conventional war. Tet's success for the North was an unexpected one. It was the erosion of grassroots support among American people Congress for continuing the war.

February 8, 1968 - 21 U.S. Marines are killed by NVA at Khe Sanh.

February 27, 1968 - Influential CBS TV news anchorman Walter Cronkite, returns from Saigon, and tells the American people during his CBS Evening News broadcast that he is certain "the bloody experience of Vietnam is to end in a stalemate or worse" and that we should get out of Vietnam. This is the beginning of the turn of the American news media against the U.S. military during the war.

February 28, 1968 - Chairman of the Joint Chiefs GEN Wheeler, at the behest of Gen. Westmoreland, asks President Johnson for an additional 206,000 soldiers and mobilization of reserve units in the U.S. This request will be refused. Johnson never mobilizes the reserve components to fight the war thereby telling the American people we really are not at war.

General William C. Westmoreland
(National Archives)

March 1, 1968 - Clark Clifford, renowned Washington lawyer and an old friend of the President, becomes the Secretary of Defense. For the next few days, he conducts an intensive study of the entire situation in Vietnam. Clifford discovers there is no concept or overall plan anywhere in Washington for achieving victory in Vietnam. then reports to President Johnson that the United States should not escalate the war.

March 10, 1968 - The New York Times breaks the news of Westmoreland's 206,000 troop request and is denied by the White House.

March 16, 1968 - Senator Robert F. Kennedy (D) announces his candidacy for the president.

March 16, 1968 - Over 300 Vietnamese are murdered in My Lai hamlet by members of Charlie Company, 1st Battalion, 20th Infantry, 25th Infantry Division. Upon entering My Lai and finding no Viet Cong, the Americans begin killing every civilian in sight, interrupted only by helicopter pilot CPT Hugh Thompson who lands and begins evacuating civilians after realizing what is happening.

March 28, 1968 - The initial report by participants at My Lai states that 69 Viet Cong soldiers were killed and makes no mention of civilian causalities.

The My Lai massacre is suppressed for a year, until an official Army investigation that results in the Charlie Company Commander, CPT Ernest L. Medina, First Platoon Leader, 2LT William Calley, and 14 others being brought to trial by the Army.

March 23, 1968 - GEN Wheeler informs GEN Westmoreland that President Johnson will approve only 13,500 additional soldiers out of the original 206,000 requested.

March 25, 1968 - Secretary Clifford convenes the "Wise Men," a dozen distinguished elder statesmen and soldiers, including former Secretary of State Dean Acheson and World War II General Omar Bradley. They are given a blunt assessment of the situation in Vietnam, including the widespread corruption of the Saigon government and the unlikely prospect for military victory "under the present circumstances."

March 26, 1968 - The "Wise Men" gather at the White House and advocate U.S. withdrawal from Vietnam, with only four of those present dissenting from that opinion.

March 31, 1968 - President Johnson stuns announces his decision not to seek re-election. He also announces a partial bombing halt and urges Hanoi to begin peace talks.

April 1, 1968 - The 1st Cavalry Division (Airmobile) begins Operation Pegasus to reopen Route 9, the relief route to the besieged Marines at Khe Sanh.

April 4, 1968 - Dr. Martin Luther King is assassinated in Memphis.

April 8, 1968 - The siege of Khe Sanh ends with the withdrawal of NVA troops from the area as a result of intensive American bombing and the reopening of Route 9. NVA losses during the siege are estimated up to 15,000. U.S. Marines suffered 199 killed and 830 wounded. 1st Cavalry suffered 92 killed and 629 wounded reopening Route 9. The U.S. command then secretly shuts down the Khe Sanh support base and air strop and withdraws the Marines. A North Vietnamese official labels the closing of Khe Sanh as America's "gravest defeat" so far.

April 11, 1968 - Defense Secretary Clifford announces GEN Westmoreland's request for 206,000 additional soldiers will not be granted.

May 5, 1968 - Viet Cong launch a series of rocket and mortar attacks against Saigon and 119 cities and military installations throughout South Vietnam.

May 10, 1968 - An NVA battalion attacks the Special Forces camp at Kham Duc along the border of Laos. Now encircled by NVA, the decision is made to evacuate via C-130 transport planes. At the conclusion of the airlift, it's discovered that three U.S. Air Force controllers have accidentally been left behind. Two C-130s have been shot down, LTC Joe M. Jackson flys in a C-123 and lands on the air strip under intense fire - gathers all three controllers, then takes off. For this action, Jackson is awarded the Medal of Honor.

May 10, 1968 - Peace talks begin in Paris but soon stall, the U.S. insists that North Vietnamese troops withdraw from the South, while the North Vietnamese insist on Viet Cong participation in a coalition government in South Vietnam.

June 5, 1968 - Robert F. Kennedy is shot and killed in Los Angeles just after winning the California Democratic presidential primary election.

July 1968 - Congress passes a ten percent income tax surcharge to defray costs of the war.

July 1, 1968 - General Westmoreland is replaced as commander of MACV by GEN Creighton W. Abrams.

July 3, 1968 - Three American prisoners of war are released by Hanoi.

August 8, 1968 - Richard M. Nixon is elected as the Republican presidential candidate at their convention and promises "an honorable end to the war in Vietnam."

August 28, 1968 - During the Democratic National Convention in Chicago, over 10,000 anti-war protesters gather on downtown streets and are then confronted by 26,000 police and national guardsmen. The crackdown is covered live on network television.

October 1968 - Operation Sealord begins the largest combined naval operation of the war as over 1200 U.S. Navy and South Vietnamese Navy gunboats and warships target NVA supply lines extending from Cambodia to the Mekong Delta.

October 31, 1968 - Operation Rolling Thunder ends as President Johnson announces a halt to the bombing of North Vietnam in the hope of restarting the peace talks.

November 5, 1968 - Richard M. Nixon defeats Hubert Humphrey in the presidential election.

November 27, 1968 - President-elect Nixon asks Harvard professor Henry Kissinger to be his National Security Advisor.

U.S. troop levels reach 495,000 with 30,000 American KIAs to date. During the year more than a thousand a month were killed.

1969

January 1, 1969 - Henry Cabot Lodge, former American ambassador to South Vietnam, is selected by President-elect Nixon to be the senior U.S negotiator at the Paris peace talks.

January 20, 1969 - Richard M. Nixon is inaugurated as the 37th President of the United States.

January 22, 1969 - Operation Dewey Canyon, the last major offensive combat operation by U.S. Marines begins in the Da Krong valley.

January 25, 1969 - Paris peace talks open with the U.S., South Vietnam, North Vietnam and the Viet Cong all in attendance.

February 25, 1969 - 36 U.S. Marines are killed by the NVA who have raided their base camp near the DMZ.

March 4, 1969 - President Nixon threatens to resume bombing North Vietnam in retaliation for Viet Cong offenses in the South.

March 15, 1969 - U.S. troops go on the offensive inside the DMZ for the first time since 1968.

March 17, 1969 - President Nixon authorizes Operation Menu, the secret bombing of Cambodia by targeting North Vietnamese supply sanctuaries located along the border of Vietnam.

April 30, 1969 - U.S. troop levels reach its peak at 543,400; with 33,641 Americans KIA, a number now greater than the Korean War combat deaths.

May 1969 - The New York Times breaks the news of the secret bombing of Cambodia. Nixon orders FBI wiretaps on the telephones of four journalists, along with government officials to determine the source of news leak.

May 10-May 20 - Forty-six men of the 101st Airborne die during a ten-day battle at 'Hamburger Hill' in the A Shau Valley near Hue. After the hill is taken, the troops are ordered to abandon it by their commander. NVA then move in and take back the hill unopposed.

June 8, 1969 - President Nixon meets South Vietnam's President Nguyen Van Thieu at Midway Island and informs him that troop levels are going to be sharply reduced. During a press briefing with Thieu, Nixon announces "Vietnamization" of the war and a U.S. troops withdrawal.

July 1969 - President Nixon, through a French emissary, sends a secret letter to Ho Chi Minh urging him to settle the war, while at the same time threatening to resume bombing if peace talks remain stalled as of the 1st of November. Hanoi responds by repeating earlier demands for Viet Cong participation in a coalition government in South Vietnam.

July 8, 1969 - The first U.S. troop withdrawal occurs. The troop withdrawal will occur in 14 stages from July 1969 through November 1972.

July 17, 1969 - Secretary of State William Rogers accuses Hanoi of "lacking humanity" in the treatment of our POWs.

July 25, 1969 - The "Nixon Doctrine" is released to the public. It advocates U.S. military and economic assistance to nations struggling against communism, but there will be no more Vietnam-style ground wars involving American troops. The emphasis is thus placed on local military self-sufficiency, backed by U.S. air power and technical assistance.

July 30, 1969 - President Nixon visits U.S. troops and President Thieu in Vietnam.

August 4, 1969 - Henry Kissinger conducts his first meeting in Paris with representatives from Hanoi.

August 12, 1969 - Viet Cong begin a new offensive attacking targets throughout South Vietnam.

September 2, 1969 - Ho Chi Minh dies age 79 due to a heart attack. He is succeeded by Le Duan, who reads the last will of Ho Chi Minh urging the North Vietnamese to fight on "until the last Yankee has gone."

September 5, 1969 - The U.S. Army file murder charges against Lt. William Calley for the the massacre of Vietnamese civilians at My Lai in March of 1968.

September 16, 1969 - President Nixon orders the withdrawal of 35,000 soldiers from Vietnam and a reduces the number required to be drafted.

October 1969 - Seventy-one percent of American people approve of President Nixon's Vietnam policy.

November 16, 1969 - The U.S. Army publicly discusses events surrounding the My Lai massacre.

December 1, 1969 - The first draft lottery since World War II is held in New York City. Each day of the year is assigned a number. Those with birthdays on days with low numbers were more likely to be drafted.

December 15, 1969 - An additional 50,000 soldiers are withdrawn from South Vietnam.

December 20, 1969 - Henry Cabot Lodge quits his post as chief U.S. negotiator at the Paris peace talks.

At year's end troop strenght in Vietnam has been reduced by 115,000 men. There have been 40,024 Americans KIA.

1970

February 21, 1970 - The official peace talks remain deadlocked in Paris, but behind the scenes, Henry Kissinger begins a series of talks with North Vietnam's Le Duc Tho.

March 31, 1970 - The army files murder charges against Captain Ernest L. Medina concerning the massacre of Vietnamese civilians at My Lai in March of 1968.

April 20, 1970 - President Nixon announces the withdrawal of 150,000 Americans from Vietnam within a year.

April 30, 1970 - President Nixon announces U.S. and South Vietnamese incursions into Cambodia.

May 2, 1970 - College campuses erupt in protest over the invasion of Cambodia.

May 4, 1970 - At Kent State University Ohio National Guardsmen shoot and kill four student protesters and wounding nine more.

June 22, 1970 - Use of Agent Orange defoliants is halted.

June 24, 1970 - The Senate repeals the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution.

June 30, 1970 - U.S. troops are withdrawn from Cambodia.

August 24, 1970 - Antiwar protest - bombing of the army math research center (Sterling Hall) at the University of Wisconsin-Madison kills graduate student Robert Fassnacht who was working in the building at the time. The sound of the explosion is heard up to 10 miles away.

Sterling Hall bombers, Leo Burt has never been found
(Milwaukee Journal-Sentinel Online)

September 5, 1970 - Operation Jefferson Glenn, the last offensive in Vietnam begins in Thua Thien Province.

October 7, 1970 - President Nixon proposes a "standstill" cease-fire in which all troops would stop shooting and remain in place pending a formal peace agreement. Hanoi remains silent.

October 24, 1970 - South Vietnamese troops cross the border into Cambodia.

November 12, 1970 - The general court martial of 2LT William Calley begins at Fort Benning for the murders at My Lai.

December 10, 1970 - President Nixon warns Hanoi that bombing raids may resume if North Vietnamese attacks continue against the South.

December 22, 1970 - The Cooper-Church amendment to the defense appropriations bill forbids the use of any U.S. ground forces in Laos or Cambodia.

American troop levels drop to 280,000 by year's end.

1971

January 19, 1971 - U.S. fighter-bombers launch heavy air strikes against NVA supply camps in Laos and Cambodia.

January 30-April 6 - Operation Lam Son 719, an all-South Vietnamese ground offensive, occurs as 17,000 South Vietnamese soldiers attack 22,000 NVA inside Laos in an attempt to sever the Ho Chi Minh trail. Aided by heavy U.S. artillery and air strikes, along with American helicopter lifts, South Vietnamese troops advance to their first objective but then stall thus allowing the NVA time to bring in massive troop reinforcements.

March 1, 1971 - The capitol building in Washington is damaged by a bomb.

March 10, 1971 - China pledges complete support for North Vietnam's struggle against the U.S.

March 29, 1971 - 2LT William Calley is found guilty of the murder of 22 civilians at My Lai. He is sentenced to life imprisonment with hard labor. The sentence is reduced to 20 years, then 10. Sixteen military personnel were charged with offenses under the UCMJ concerning the My Lai massacre, only five were court-martialed, and Calley was the only one found guilty.

April 1, 1971 - President Nixon orders 2LT Calley released pending his appeal.

April 19, 1971 - 'Vietnam Veterans Against the War' begin nationwide protests.

April 24, 1971 - Mass demonstrations are held in Washington attracting almost 200,000 protestors.

April 29, 1971 - Total American deaths in Vietnam surpass 45,000.

April 30, 1971 - The last marine combat units depart Vietnam.

May 3-5 - Arrest of 12,000 protesters occurs in Washington.

June 13, 1971 - The New York Times begins publication of the 'Pentagon Papers,' a secret defense department archive of the paperwork involved in decisions made by previous White House administrations concerning Vietnam.

June 15, 1971 - President Nixon attempts to stop further publication of the Pentagon Papers through legal action against the Times in the U.S. District Court.

June 18, 1971 - The Washington Post begins its publication of the Pentagon Papers.

June 22, 1971 - The Senate passes a non-binding resolution urging the removal of all American troops from Vietnam by year's end.

June 28, 1971 - Daniel Ellsberg is identified as the source of the Pentagon Papers leak, he surrenders to police.

June 30, 1971 - The U.S. Supreme Court rules 6-3 in favor of the New York Times and Washington Post permitting the publication of the Pentagon Papers

July 15, 1971 - President Nixon announces he will visit Communist China in 1972.

July 17, 1971 - The Watergate 'Plumbers' unit is established in the White House by Nixon aides John Ehrlichman and Charles Colson to investigate Daniel Ellsberg and to 'plug' various news leaks.

September 22, 1971 - Captain Ernest L. Medina is acquitted of all charges concerning the massacre of Vietnamese civilians at My Lai.

October 3, 1971 - President Thieu of South Vietnam is re-elected.

October 31, 1971 - The first Viet Cong POWs are released by Saigon.

December 17, 1971 - U.S. troop levels drop to 156,800.

December 26-30 - The U.S. bombs military installations in North Vietnam citing violations of the agreements surrounding the 1968 bombing halt.

1972

January 25, 1972 - President Nixon announces an eight point peace plan for Vietnam which Henry Kissinger has been secretly negotiating with the North Vietnamese. Hanoi rejects the plan.

February 21-28 - President Nixon visits the Peoples Republic of China and meets with Mao Tse Tung and Prime Minister Zhou En Lai. Nixon's visit causes concern in Hanoi.

March 10, 1972 - The U.S. 101st Airborne Division is departs from Vietnam.

March 23, 1972 - The U.S. boycotts the Paris peace talks - President Nixon accuses Hanoi of refusing to "negotiate seriously."

March-September - The Eastertide Offensive occurs as 200,000 North Vietnamese soldiers under the command of General Vo Nguyen Giap wage an all-out attack to conquer South Vietnam. The offensive is a large gamble by Giap trying to take advantage of American troop withdrawal; and the poor performance of the ARVN during Operation Lam Son 719 in 1971.

March 30, 1972 - NVA Eastertide attack on Quang Tri begins.

April 2, 1972 - In response to the Eastertide Offensive, the U.S. 7th Fleet targets NVA troops massed around the DMZ with air strikes and naval gunfire support.

April 4, 1972 - In a further response to the Eastertide Offensive, Nixon authorizes massive bombing campaigns on all NVA troops invading South Vietnam. B-52s bomb North Vietnam

April 12, 1972 - NVA Eastertide attack on Kontum begins in central South Vietnam.

April 15, 1972 - Hanoi and Haiphong harbor are bombed.

April 15-20 - Protests against the bombings erupt in America.

April 19, 1972 - NVA Eastertide Offensive attack on An Loc begins.

April 27, 1972 - Paris peace talks resume.

April 30, 1972 - American troop levels drop to 69,000.

May 1, 1972 - ARVN abandon Quang Tri City to the NVA.

May 4, 1972 - The U.S. and South Vietnam suspend participation in the Paris peace talks. Additional U.S. warplanes are ordered to Vietnam.

May 8, 1972 - In response to the ongoing NVA Eastertide Offensive, President Nixon orders Operation Linebacker, including the mining of Haiphong's harbor along with the bombing of roads, bridges, and oil facilities. The announcement brings international condemnation of the U.S. and more anti-war protests in America.

(US Air Force)

May 9, 1972 - Operation Linebacker begins.

May 1, 1972 - The NVA capture Quang Tri City.

May 15, 1972 - The U.S. Army - Vietnam is deactivated.

May 17, 1972 - The U. S. states Operation Linebacker is damaging North Vietnam's ability to supply NVA troops engaged in the Eastertide Offensive.

May 22-30 - President Nixon visits the USSRand meets with Leonid Brezhnev. Nixon's visit worries Hanoi.

May 30, 1972 - NVA attack on Kontum is repulsed by ARVN troops and U.S. air strikes.

June 1, 1972 - Hanoi admits Operation Linebacker is causing severe disruptions.

June 17, 1972 - Five burglars are arrested inside the Watergate building in Washington DC while attempting to plant hidden microphones in the Democratic National Committee (DNC) offices.

June 28, 1972 - ARVN troops begin a counter-offensive to retake Quang Tri Province, aided by U.S. Navy gunfire and and air strikes.

June 30, 1972 - GENFrederick C. Weyand replaces GEN Abrams as MACV commander.

July 11, 1972 - NVA attack on An Loc is repulsed by ARVN troops aided air strikes.

July 13, 1972 - Paris peace talks resume.

July 18, 1972 - During a visit to Hanoi, actress Jane Fonda broadcasts anti-war messages via Hanoi Radio. She becomes known as "Hanoi Jane."

July 19, 1972 - ARVN troops begin a major counter-offensive against NVA in Binh Dinh Province.

August 23, 1972 - The last major U.S. ground combat unit departs Vietnam.

September 16, 1972 - Quang Tri City is recaptured by ARVN troops.

October 8, 1972 - The long-standing diplomatic stalemate between Washington and Hanoi finally ends as both sides agree to concessions. The U.S. will allow North Vietnamese troops already in South Vietnam to remain there, while North Vietnam drops its demand for the removal of South Vietnam's President Thieu and the dissolution of his government.

October 22, 1972 - Kissinger arrives in Saigon and visits President Thieu to discuss the peace proposal.

Meetings between Kissinger and President Thieu go badly as Thieu adamantly opposes allowing North Vietnamese troops to remain in South Vietnam. An angry Kissinger reports Thieu's reaction to President Nixon. Nixon threatens Thieu with a total cut-off of all American aid. But Thieu does not give in.

October 22, 1972 - Operation Linebacker ends. The U.S. flew 40,000 sorties and dropped over 125,000 tons of bombs during the campaign which effectively disrupted North Vietnam's Eastertide Offensive.

The North Vietnamese suffered an estimated 100,000 military casualties and lost half its tanks and artillery. General Vo Nguyen Giap, the victor at Dien Bien Phu, was quietly replaced by his deputy GEN Van Tien Dung.

October 24, 1972 - President Thieu denounces Kissinger's peace proposal.

October 26, 1972 - Radio Hanoi broadcasts terms of the peace proposal and accuses the U.S. of attempting to sabotage the aggreement. At the White House, Henry Kissinger holds a press briefing and declares, "We believe that peace is at hand."

November 7, 1972 - Richard M. Nixon wins the presidential election by the biggest landslide in U.S. history.

November 14, 1972 - President Nixon sends a letter to President Thieu pledging "to take swift and severe retaliatory action" if North Vietnam violates the proposed peace treaty.

November 30, 1972 - American combat troop withdrawal from South Vietnam is completed. There are still 16,000 army advisors and administrators remaining to assist South Vietnam's military forces.

December 13, 1972 - In Paris, peace negotiations between Kissinger and Le Duc Tho collapse when Kissinger presents a list of 69 changes demanded by President Thieu.

President Nixon issues an ultimatum to North Vietnam. Serious negotiations must resume within 72 hours. When Hanoi does not respond, President Nixon orders Operation Linebacker II, eleven days and nights of massive bombing against military targets in Hanoi and other parts of North Vietnam by B-52s.

December 18, 1972 - Operation Linebacker II begins. The "Christmas bombings" are widely denounced by American politicians, the media, and various world leaders including the Pope. (In reality, bombing is suspended for Christmas day.)

December 26, 1972 - North Vietnam decides to resume peace negotiations within five days after the end of bombing.

December 29, 1972 - Operation Linebacker II ends what had been the most intensive bombing campaign of the war. Over 100,000 bombs are dropped on Hanoi and Haiphong. Fifteen of the 121 B-52s participating were shot down by the North Vietnamese who fired 1200 SAMs.

1973

January 8, 1973 - Kissinger and Le Duc Tho resume peace negotiations in Paris.

January 9, 1973 - All remaining differences are resolved between Kissinger and Le Duc Tho.

President Thieu, is threatened by Nixon with a total cut-off of American aid to South Vietnam. He unwillingly accepts the peace agreement, which allows North Vietnamese troops to remain in South Vietnam. Thieu labels the terms "tantamount to surrender" for South Vietnam.

January 23, 1973 - President Nixon announces that an agreement has been reached with Hanoi which will "end the war and bring peace with honor."

January 27, 1973 - The Paris Peace Accords are signed by the U.S., North Vietnam, South Vietnam and the Viet Cong.

Terms of the accords include:

1. The U.S. agrees to immediately halt all military activities and withdraw all remaining military personnel within 60 days.

2. The North Vietnamese agree to an immediate cease-fire and the release of all American POWs within 60 days.

3. An estimated 150,000 NVA soldiers presently in South Vietnam are allowed to remain.

4. Vietnam is to remain divided.

5. South Vietnam is considered to be one country with two governments, one led by President Thieu, the other led by Viet Cong, pending future reconciliation.

6. The U.S. will remove all mines in North Vietnam's harbors.

January 27, 1973 - Secretary of Defense Melvin Laird announces the draft is ended in favor of voluntary enlistment (VOLAR).

January 27, 1973 - The last American soldier to die in combat prior to the "Fall of Saigon" in Vietnam, LTC William B. Nolde, is killed.

February 12, 1973 - Operation Homecoming begins. Hanoi releases 591 American POWs.

March 29, 1973 - The last remaining American troops being the withdraw from Vietnam as President Nixon declares "the day we have all worked and prayed for has finally come."

April 1973 - President Nixon and President Thieu meet at San Clemente, California. Nixon renews his earlier pledge to respond militarily if North Vietnam violates the peace agreement.

April 1, 1973 - CPT Robert White, the last known American POW is released.

June 19, 1973 - The Congress passes the Case-Church Amendment which forbids any further U.S. military involvement in Southeast Asia, effective August 15, 1973. The veto-proof vote is 278-124 in the House and 64-26 in the Senate. Congress is controlled by the Democrats.

The amendment will allow North Vietnam to conduct another invasion of the South, but this time, without fear of U.S. intervention.

June 24, 1973 - Graham Martin is appointed the new U.S. ambassador to South Vietnam.

July 1973 - The U.S. Navy removes mines from Hiaphong harbor in North Vietnam.

July 16, 1973 - The U.S. Senate Armed Services Committee begins hearings into the secret bombing of Cambodia during 1969-70.

July 17, 1973 - Secretary of Defense James Schlesinger testifies before the Armed Services Committee that 3500 sorties were launched into Cambodia to protect American troops. The extent of Nixon's secret bombing campaign angers many in Congress and results in the first call for Nixon's impeachment.

August 14, 1973 - U.S. bombing missions in Cambodia are halted. IAW the congressional ban contained in the Case-Church amendment.

August 22, 1973 - Henry Kissinger is selected by President Nixon as his new Secretary of State, replacing William Rogers.

September 22, 1973 - South Vietnamese troops assault NVA near Pleiku.

October 10, 1973 - Political scandals results in the resignation of Vice President Spiro T. Agnew. He is replaced by Congressman Gerald R. Ford.

November 7, 1973 - Congress passes the War Powers Resolution requiring the President to obtain the support of Congress within 90 days of sending American troops into combat.

1974

May 9, 1974 - The House of Representatives begins impeachment proceedings against President Nixon stemming from the Watergate scandal.

August 9, 1974 - Richard M. Nixon resigns from the presidency. Gerald R. Ford is sworn in as the 38th U.S. President.

September 1974 - The U.S. Congress appropriates only $700 million for aid to South Vietnam. This leaves the South Vietnamese under-funded and results in a decline of military readiness and morale. The ARVN can no longer fight as it has been trained using the American model due to lack of support.

September 16, 1974 - President Gerald R. Ford announces clemency for draft dodgersrs and military deserters. The program runs through March 31, 1975, and requires fugitives to take an oath of allegiance and also perform up to two years of community service. Out of an estimated 124,000 men eligible, only 22,500 take advantage of the offer.

October - North Vietnam decides to launch an invasion of South Vietnam in 1975.

November 19, 1974 - William Calley is freed after serving three and a half years under house arrest following his conviction for the murder of 22 My Lai civilians.

December 13, 1974 - North Vietnam violates the Paris peace accords by attacking Phuoc Long Province in South Vietnam. President Ford responds with diplomatic protests but no military force in compliance with the congressional ban on all U.S. military activities in Southeast Asia.

December 18, 1974 - North Vietnam leaders meet to plan for final victory in the south.

1975

January 8, 1975 - NVA general staff plan for the invasion of South Vietnam by 20 divisions is approved by the Politburo. The Soviet-supplied NVA is the fifth largest in the world. It anticipates a two year struggle for victory.

January 14, 1975 - Testifying before Congress, Secretary of Defense James Schlesinger states that the U.S. is not living up to its promises to South Vietnam's President Thieu to support South Vietnam.

January 21, 1975 - During a press conference, President Ford states the U.S. is will be unable to re-enter the war in south east asia.

February 5, 1975 - NVA General Van Tien Dung secretly crosses into South Vietnam to take command of the final offensive.

March 10, 1975 - The final NVA offensive begins as 25,000 troops attack Ban Me Thuot located in the Central Highlands.

March 11, 1975 - Ban Me Thuot falls. Half of the 4000 South Vietnamese soldiers defending it surrender or desert.

March 13, 1975 - President Thieu decides to abandon the Highlands region and two northern provinces to the NVA.

This decision initiates a mass exodus of civilians and soldiers, clogging roads and creating general chaos. NVA troops shell the disorganized retreat which becomes known as "the convoy of tears."

March 18, 1975 - Realizing the South Vietnamese Army is in the process of collapsing, NVA leaders decide to accelerate their offensive to achieve total victory before May 1.

March 19, 1975 - Quang Tri City falls.

March 24, 1975 - Tam Ky falls.

March 25, 1975 - Hue falls after a three day siege. South Vietnamese troops no longer have the will to fight.

March 26, 1975 - Chu Lai is evacuated.

March 28, 1975 - Da Nang is shelled, 35,000 NVA troops prepare to attack.

March 30, 1975 - Da Nang falls - 100,000 South Vietnamese soldiers surrender after being abandoned by their commanding officers.

March 31, 1975 - NVA begin the final push toward Saigon.

April 4, 1975 -- General Weyand's assessment of the situation.

(National Archives - Gerald R. Ford Presidential Library)

April 9, 1975 - NVA close in on Xuan Loc, 38 miles from Saigon. 40,000 NVA attack the city but encounter stiff resistance from the ARVN.

April 20, 1975 - U.S. Ambassador Graham Martin meets with President Thieu and pressures him to resign.

April 21, 1975 - President Thieu resigns but during a 90 minute speech to the people of South Vietnam, he reads from the letter sent by Nixon in 1972 pledging "severe retaliatory action" if South Vietnam was threatened. Thieu condemns the Paris Peace Accords, Henry Kissinger and the U.S. He states, "The United States has not respected its promises. It is inhumane. It is untrustworthy. It is irresponsible." He is then ushered into exile in Taiwan, aided by the CIA.

April 22, 1975 - Xuan Loc falls to the NVA after a two week battle with South Vietnam's 18th Army Division.

April 23, 1975 - 100,000 NVA soldiers advance on Saigon which is now overflowing with refugees. President Ford gives a speech at Tulane University stating the conflict in Vietnam is "a war that is finished as far as America is concerned."

April 27, 1975 - Saigon is encircled. NVA fire rockets into downtown civilian areas as the city erupts into chaos and widespread looting.

April 28, 1975 - General Duong Van "Big" Minh becomes the new president of South Vietnam and appeals for a cease-fire. His appeal is ignored.

April 29, 1975 - NVA shell Tan Son Nhut air base near Saigon, killing two U.S. Marines. President Ford now orders Operation Frequent Wind, the helicopter evacuation of Americans and South Vietnamese from Saigon, which begins with the radio broadcast of the song "White Christmas" as a pre-arraigned code signal.

At Tan Son Nhut the evacuation continues by helicopter. The evacuation is then shifted to the walled-in American embassy in Saigon.

April 30, 1975 - At 8:35 a.m., the last Americans, ten marines from the embassy guard depart the roof of the embassy in Saigon ending the United States presence in Vietnam.

April 30, 1975 - Operation New Arrivals, the resettlement of South Vietnam Refugees in the United States begins. Main locations of the operation include the Territory of Guam; Fort Chaffee , AR; and Fort Indiantown Gap, PA. President Ford approves the creation of the the "Humanitarian Service Medal" and participants in "Operation New Arrivals" are the first members of the military to be awarded the medal.